CULTURE & ANTHROPOLOGY REFERENCES

Vietnam War Epigenetics Literature Review Annotated Bibliography

(India) Abu-Musa, A. A., Kobeissi, L., Hannoun, A. B., & Inhorn, M. C. (2008). Effect of war on fertility: a review of the literature. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 17 Suppl 1, 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60189-7 

This review article explores the complex ways that war affects fertility, drawing from various conflicts worldwide. Abu-Musa and his colleagues highlight how factors like economic instability, displacement, and psychological trauma can lead to changes in birth rates, from declining fertility during wartime to potential spikes afterward. It’s fascinating to see how these effects aren’t just biological but also deeply tied to social and cultural shifts. The authors do a solid job of piecing together studies from different regions, giving a broad yet detailed picture of how conflict shapes reproductive behavior.

(Chelsea) Al Jowf, G. I., Snijders, C., Rutten, B. P., de Nijs, L., & Eijssen, L. M. (2021). The molecular biology of susceptibility to post-traumatic stress disorder: highlights of epigenetics and epigenomics. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/19/10743 

This article explores the molecular, biochemical, and physiological alterations exhibited in PTSD patients as well as epigenetic inheritance of PTSD on a biological level. This source identifies how the presence of stress-related symptoms in children of those with PTSD can often be explained by intergenerational epigenetic inheritance which involves direct exposure to germ cells or in utero which can only be studied in the female-line’s third-generation offspring. This article also aims to push for a more biological understanding of PTSD rather than purely psychological which opens the door for greater research as to the biology behind the potential epigenetic inheritance of PTSD in offspring. The recency of this article and its focus on the molecular biological methods through which intergenerational epigenetic inheritance occurs is helpful to our research in understanding how stress incurred during the Vietnam War is biologically expressed in offspring to a microscopic biological level which is important especially in terms of how the manifestation of stress is often overlooked in other research as purely focusing on psychology despite how our research aims to be holistic in what stress encompasses. 

(Chelsea) Duong Trung Le, Thanh Minh Pham, Solomon Polachek. (2022). The long-term health impact of Agent Orange: Evidence from the Vietnam War. World Development Volume 155. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X22000031?casa_token=d2kiwLrvWZYAAAAA:IyKy-znFoRnWk_Vy_l4QMYycAJbRb0rR0xiG18lPOdUGTyLGxUF_ICImMV4itF3H6-JYxt4 

This article specifically focuses on the long term impacts of health on Vietnamese civilians based on the United States government’s use of Agent Orange, a toxic military herbicide, during the Vietnam War. By analyzing numerous studies, this article has determined that those located in close exposure to AO were nearly 20% more likely to suffer from medically-linked disease three decades later. This source has gathered data based on AO’s effects on blood pressure, disease, mobility disability, and health consequences exhibited in those in utero during this time period. Furthermore, exposure to toxic herbicides has resulted in cancer, cardiovascular disease, genetic disturbance, and birth defects as well as intergenerational health consequences despite limited data about it as its a newly explored field. This recency of this article, its compilation of studies that focus on the impact of the specific traumatic event of the spread of toxic herbicides during the Vietnam War, and how it describes effects among different generations in Vietnam make this source helpful for our research.  

(Eleanor) Godfrey, K. M., Forrester, T., Barker, D. J. P., Jackson, A. A., Landman, J. P., Hall, J. St. E., Cox, V., & Osmond, C. (1994). Maternal nutritional status in pregnancy and blood pressure in childhood. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1994.tb11911.x 

The study measured blood pressure in seventy-seven children, aged 10 to 12 years, after assessing the mothers' lowest hemoglobin levels during pregnancy and skinfold thickness in the tricep region. It found that raised blood pressure during pregnancy results in higher blood pressure throughout the child's life. The purpose of this research was to examine how maternal nutrition influences hypertension in fetal life and blood pressure during childhood. The results indicated that systolic pressure was higher in children whose mothers had lower hemoglobin during pregnancy. Ultimately, women who begin pregnancy in a poor nutritional state tend to produce children with higher blood pressure. These findings may be applied to populations affected by malnutrition during periods of war and famine. Although the study did not find a correlation between maternal tricep skinfold thickness and the child's blood pressure, it suggests that further research is needed on the effects of pregnancy nutrition. A potential limitation of the study is the lack of demographic information on the mothers, which limits understanding of socioeconomic disparities.

(Eleanor) Kang, H. K., Mahan, C. M., Lee, K. Y., Magee, C. A., Mather, S. H., & Matanoski, G. (2000). Pregnancy outcomes among U.S. women Vietnam veterans. American journal of industrial medicine. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0274(200010)

This study involved approximately 8,000 women who either served in Vietnam or did not, all of whom completed a survey about their health, lifestyle, pregnancy outcomes, military experiences, and more. The researchers anticipated certain birth defects, including isolated anomalies, chromosomal abnormalities, and unspecified heart abnormalities, among others. No significant statistical difference was found between the two groups in terms of spontaneous abortions or stillbirths. However, there was a slight statistical significance in the number of "likely" birth defects among women with Vietnam experience compared to those who did not serve. The study relied on self-reported birth defects and encountered difficulties in retrieving birth certificates to verify these reports, which reduced its validity. Although the women’s experiences and exposures to the Vietnam War varied, the study suggests that even non-Vietnamese women were negatively affected by the war, with potential impacts such as birth defects and cognitive delays in their children. This study points towards much needed research on impacts of generational offspring in those who were involved and impacted by the Vietnam war. 

(Chelsea) Kello, E. R. (2020).Facial clefting and the vietnam war: A study of DNA methylation patterns and intergenerational stress. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/19/10743 

This article reviews the link between extreme stress, particularly in mothers during the Vietnam War, and heritable patterns of changes in DNA methylation patterns and its manifestation as facial clefting as a result of wartime stress. This article focuses on one study performed by the researchers yet includes data from other researches to support their logic. The researchers discover that methylation status of two genes was associated with stress exposure and clefts and furthermore how methylation of particular genes are associated with maternal nutrition and stress and appear in their children. The genes these researchers studied focused on clefts also account for abnormalities in brain development and different expressions result in higher risk of neurological disorders. This article provides a unique focus on the prevalence of clefting in children from mothers who experienced great stress during the Vietnam War as well as the specific changes in genetic expression that cause this. By using a source with a specific focus on how wartime stress affects offspring with such biologically specific genetic data, we can benefit from seeing how stress has manifested in epigenetic changes that we didn’t foresee our research originally taking us. 

(Eleanor) Le, T. N., & Johansson, A. (2001). Impact of chemical warfare with agent orange on women's reproductive lives in Vietnam: a pilot study. Reproductive health matters. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0968-8080(01)90102-8 

During the Vietnam War, excessive amounts of herbicides were used as a war tactic to destroy vegetation. However, increased levels of dioxin, a toxic compound, were found in human blood and breast milk samples. Agent Orange, as it was called, has been linked to reduced fertility, an increase in birth defects including low birth weight, and higher infant mortality rates. The study in question involved 30 randomly selected families who participated in semi-structured interviews, describing their family history and the birth defects of their children. Additionally, they underwent a reproductive life survey to minimize recall error. Families living near areas where Agent Orange was released had higher concentrations of the toxin in their blood and breast milk compared to families in regions not exposed to the chemical. The study also included interviews with women who had experienced years of reproductive loss, providing insight into the broader social stigma these families faced due to their children’s disabilities. While the study lacks the controlled conditions of an experimental design, it effectively highlights the struggles faced by these families within a complex political and historical context.

(India) Lodge-Tulloch, N. A., Toews, A. J., Atallah, A., Cotechini, T., Girard, S., & Graham, C. H. (2022). Cross-Generational Impact of Innate Immune Memory Following Pregnancy Complications. Cells, 11(23). https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11233935  

This review examines how inflammation during pregnancy complications can lead to long-term health effects for both mothers and their children. The authors explore the concept of innate immune memory, where an initial inflammatory response epigenetically reprograms immune cells, altering future responses. They propose that abnormal maternal inflammation can increase the risk of noncommunicable diseases, like cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, across generations. By understanding the role of innate immune memory, the study aims to pave the way for new strategies to reduce long-term disease risks linked to pregnancy complications, offering insights into potential interventions for better maternal and child health outcomes.

(Chelsea) O'Brien, K. J. (2007). The uncounted casualties of war: epigenetics and the intergenerational transference of PTSD symptoms among children and grandchildren of Vietnam veterans in Australia. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/13794/1/13794.pdf 

This source focuses on epigenetics and intergenerational transfer of PTSD of children and grandchildren of Australian Vietnam War veterans as well as focusing on how the inheritance of PTSD symptoms to children are often misdiagnosed and therefore mistreated. An emerging field has pioneered how children of PTSD veterans are at a higher predisposition of developing PTSD themselves or other emotional or conduct disorders such as the frequency of ADHD  in Australian children of Vietnam War veterans. This article argues how diagnostic criteria changes based on the era it's issued and thus has evolved since the Vietnam War and thus this article proposes that Australian children of veterans might be misdiagnosed with ADHD which serves as the evolved form of misdiagnosed PTSD exhibited in offspring. This article is suitable for our research because it intently focuses on the epigenetic effects of PTSD in Vietnam War veterans on their offspring. Despite how it was published in 2007, that could benefit our research in terms of comparing it to more modern studies that perhaps have unraveled more about how epigenetic transfers of PTSD are diagnosed. 

(Chelsea) Raza, Z., Hussain, S. F., Foster, V. S., Wall, J., Coffey, P. J., Martin, J. F., & Gomes, R. S. M. (2023). Exposure to war and conflict: The individual and inherited epigenetic effects on health, with a focus on post-traumatic stress disorder. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/epidemiology/articles/10.3389/fepid.2023.1066158/full 

This article reviews how military populations among various wars throughout history have exhibited epigenetic differences particularly related to stress and PTSD. By encompassing data from numerous studies, this source touches on expressions of genes and alterations to the sympathetic nervous systems in veterans with PTSD. The authors also explore topics such as sleep, immunological ramifications, and effects on pregnant mothers and their offsprings surviving during wartime and how prenatal exposure to the stress of war increases cortisol levels. Although this source doesn’t specifically target our research question in regards to pregnant mothers, it incorporates a multitude of studies that reveal which specific epigenetic changes tend to be altered by war. The recency of this article (published last year), its plethora of cited and detailed studies that they set in comparison to identify epigenetic effects involved with PTSD, as well as its visuals and tables makes it a helpful source to rely on in distinguishing the epigenetic trends we will identify in articles more specifically-focused on the Vietnam War. 

(Eleanor) Rubin, L. P. (2016). Maternal and pediatric health and disease: integrating biopsychosocial models and epigenetics. Pediatric Research. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2015.203 

Adverse early life experiences can significantly alter immune system responsiveness and compromise healthy neurodevelopmental pathways. Concepts like allostasis and weathering underscore a child’s increased vulnerability to disease and reduced ability to adapt to environmental stressors. Low socioeconomic status, malnutrition, or stress during pregnancy or critical fetal periods can result in premature aging, cognitive delays, elevated cortisol levels, and low birth weight. The systematic weathering linked to low SES perpetuates unfavorable conditions in marginalized communities. Although rates of low birth weight have declined over time, racial disparities in birth outcomes persist. Data from WWII demonstrates that extreme deprivation during pregnancy can have profound genetic impacts on offspring. This review highlights the relationship between maternal trauma and the corresponding physiological and biological responses in infants, suggesting the role of epigenetic mechanisms during critical periods of pregnancy. This source is intended for researchers and biologists studying epigenetics, with a purpose for highlighting disparities in adverse prenatal environments.

(India) Satterfield, M. C., Edwards, A. K., Bazer, F. W., Dunlap, K. A., Steinhauser, C. B., & Wu, G. (2021). Placental adaptation to maternal malnutrition. Reproduction, 162(4), R73–R83. https://doi.org/10.1530/REP-21-0179  

This review explores how the placenta adapts (or fails to adapt) to maternal malnutrition, influencing fetal growth. It highlights how nutrient availability affects placental vascularization, hemodynamics, and nutrient transport systems across different species. While poor placental responses often lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes, novel research identifies adaptations that allow for normal-weight offspring despite maternal undernutrition. The review also discusses how specific nutrients, like arginine, can support placental health by promoting cell proliferation and vascular development. Understanding these mechanisms can inform better diagnostic tools and interventions to improve outcomes in pregnancies affected by malnutrition.

(India) Shriyan, P., Sudhir, P., van Schayck, O. C. P., & Babu, G. R. (2023). Association of high cortisol levels in pregnancy and altered fetal growth. Results from the MAASTHI, a prospective cohort study, Bengaluru. The Lancet Regional Health. Southeast Asia, 14, 100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lansea.2023.100196 

This study examines the relationship between maternal stress (measured by serum cortisol) during pregnancy and infant birth outcomes, alongside postpartum depression, in a public health facility in India. Using data from 230 pregnant women, the findings reveal that higher cortisol levels are linked to low birth weight and lower weight-for-length ratios in newborns. Additionally, women with elevated cortisol levels had a 2.3-fold increased risk of postpartum depressive symptoms. However, no associations were found with other birth measurements like head circumference or gestational age. The study underscores the need for managing stress during pregnancy to improve maternal and infant health outcomes.

(India) Vuic, K. D. (2007). “I’m afraid we’re going to have to just change our ways”: Marriage, Motherhood, and Pregnancy in the Army Nurse Corps during the Vietnam War. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32(4), 997–1022. https://doi.org/10.1086/513078 

This article examines how strict military policies on marriage, motherhood, and pregnancy affected female nurses during the Vietnam War, shedding light on the broader issue of maternal stress. Fisher discusses how nurses often concealed pregnancies due to the fear of discharge, adding significant emotional and physical stress during their service. The study reveals the challenging environment these women navigated, balancing intense professional demands with the pressure to hide pregnancies. This context of heightened stress could provide insight into how wartime conditions, similar to those experienced by other pregnant women during the conflict, potentially influenced maternal health factors like cortisol levels, impacting offspring development.

 (Eleanor) Zhang, H., Wang, S., Tuo, L., Zhai, Q., Cui, J., Chen, D., & Xu, D. (2022). Relationship between Maternal Vitamin D Levels and Adverse Outcomes. Nutrients. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14204230

As vitamin D plays a key role in growth factors, increasing intestinal calcium absorption, regulating maternal inflammation, and managing the immune system, adequate intake during pregnancy is essential. This study highlights the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women and examines its impact on both mothers and infants. Deficiency in vitamin D has been linked to gestational diabetes mellitus, pregnancy-induced hypertension, stillbirth, preterm birth, and intrauterine growth restriction. However, one limitation in studying vitamin D's effects during pregnancy is that research findings are sometimes inconsistent, suggesting a need for further studies that account for factors such as race and socioeconomic status. Exploring the association between vitamin D status and pregnancy outcomes could provide insights for mothers exposed to adverse environmental stressors, such as war or famine, that hinder access to vitamin D supplementation. Given the importance of vitamin D in immune system regulation, this paper is intended for biologists and nutrition researchers interested in formulating health guidelines for pregnant women.

Uncovering Risks in Female Hormonal Devices

Everyday Health. (2023, October 18). Birth control in America: A brief history of contraception. https://www.everydayhealth.com/birth-control/contraception-birth-control-women-america/

Michels, K. A., Pfeiffer, R. M., Brinton, L. A., & Trabert, B. (2018). Modification of the associations between duration of oral contraceptive use and ovarian, endometrial, breast, and colorectal cancers. JAMA Oncology, 4(4), 516–521.

Wentzensen, N., Poole, E. M., Trabert, B., et al. (2016). Ovarian cancer risk factors by histologic subtype: An analysis from the Ovarian Cancer Cohort Consortium. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 34(24), 2888–2898.

Smith, J. S., Green, J., Berrington de González, A., et al. (2003). Cervical cancer and use of hormonal contraceptives: A systematic review. The Lancet, 361(9364), 1159–1167.

Mu, E., & Kulkarni, J. (2022). Hormonal contraception and mood disorders. Australian Prescriber, 45(3), 75–79. https://doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2022.025 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and cancer risk. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/hormones/oral-contraceptives-fact-sheet

Oddens, B. J. (1999). Women’s satisfaction with birth control: A population survey of physical and psychological effects of oral contraceptives, intrauterine devices, condoms, natural family planning, and sterilization among 1,466 women. Contraception, 59(3), 277–285.

Sharma, R., Smith, S. A., Boukina, N., Dordari, A., Mistry, A., Taylor, B. C., Felix, N., Cameron, A., Fang, Z., Smith, A., & Ismail, N. (2020). Use of the birth control pill affects stress reactivity and brain structure and function. Hormones and Behavior, 124, 104783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104783

Le, A. T., Dunne, R., Mahmood, T., & Hossain, M. S. (2022). Hormonal contraception and mental health: Findings from a population-based study. PLOS One, 17(6), e0269723. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9218393/

Cartesian Dualism in Modern Medicine

Gawande, Atul. 2002. “The Pain Perplex.” In Complications, 125-129. New York, NY. Picador.

Environments Shape Biology

Marya, Rupa and Patel Raj. 2021. “Immune System.” In Inflamed, 28-73. Broadway, NY. Picador.

Lock, M., & Nguyen, V.-K. (2010). An anthropology of biomedicine. Wiley-Blackwell

Globalization of Matcha

Dreher, Nick. “Food from Nowhere: Complicating Cultural Food Colonialism to Understand Matcha as Superfood.” Graduate Journal of Food Studies, vol. 05, no. 01, June 2018

Tung, Ho Hei. "Tasting Matcha in Hong Kong: Cultural Dynamics behind a New Global Food Fashion." Hong Kong Anthropologist, Volume 8 (2016): 1-31.

The Role of Rivalry in Reinforcing Collective Fan Identity

Harasta, J. (2021). The development of sports fan: From self-identification to “diehard.” Athens Journal of Sports, 8(1), 9–46. https://www.athensjournals.gr/sports/2021-8-1-1-Harasta.pdf

Numerato, D. (2015). Who says “no to modern football?” Italian supporters, reflexivity, and neo-liberalism. Soccer & Society, 16(5–6), 120–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2015.1010558

Cultivated Tastes & Status

Goffman, Erving. “Symbols of Class Status.” The British Journal of Sociology 2, no. 4 (1951): 294–304. https://doi.org/10.2307/588083.

Willson, Rebecca P. 2005. "Indulgence." In Fat: The Anthropology of an Obsession, edited by Don Kulick and Anne Meneley, 113-130. New York: Tarcher/Penguin. 

Ocarinas & Ancient Maya Music

Bourg, Cameron (2005). Ancient Maya Music Now with Sound (Louisiana State University) LSU Digital Commons Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2675219915). http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/ancient-maya-music-now-with-sound/docview/2675219915/se-2. 

Houston, S. D., & Inomata, T. (2009). The classic Maya. eScholarship, University of California. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/61p9b2q4 Harrison-Buck, E. (Ed.). (2012). K’axob: Ritual, work, and family in an ancient Maya village. University of Arizona Press.

Johnson, K. A. (1996). The ancient Maya ocarina: A study in organology, iconography, and ethnohistory (Master's thesis, Louisiana State University). LSU Digital Commons. https://repository.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4497&context=gradschool_theses

Olsen, D. (1978). Pre-Columbian ocarinas, pipes, and whistles. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 64(S1), S151. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2004032

Smith, B. K. (2017). The acoustics and ancient context of Mesoamerican instruments. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 14, 340–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.05.044

Vega, R. (n.d.). Resonance and ritual: The role of ocarinas in Mesoamerican cosmology. eScholarship, University of California. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/61p9b2q4

Medina, J. A. (2022). The sound of the sacred: Mesoamerican ocarinas and their ceremonial role (Doctoral dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2675219915